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\( \newcommand\) • • • • • • Skills to Develop • Define accuracy and precision • Distinguish exact and uncertain numbers • Correctly represent uncertainty in quantities using significant figures • Apply proper rounding rules to computed quantities We have seen how important measurements are to the scientific process. Scientists need to make measurements as accurate as possible in order to draw conclusions from their experiments. In order to avoid errors, however, scientists also need to be clear about how precise their measurements are, or are not, when reporting their data. No measurement tool is perfect, and so every measurement we make with imperfect tools has some amount of uncertainty associated with it. Counting is the only type of measurement that is free from uncertainty, provided the number of objects being counted does not change while the counting process is underway. The result of such a counting measurement is an example of an exact number. If we count eggs in a carton, we know exactly how many eggs the carton contains. The numbers of defined quantities are also exact. By definition, 1 foot is exactly 12 inches, 1 inch is exactly 2.54 centimeters, and 1 gram is exactly 0.001 kilogram. Quantities derived from measurements other than counting, however, are uncertain to varying extents due to practical limitations of the measurement process used. Chemists use the concept of significant figures to indicate the level of uncertainty in measured quantities or values ...

Objectives • To use a metric ruler to measure the dimensions of regular geometric shapes, and to use these measurements to determine the areas of the shapes. • To measure the volume of a sample of water using a graduated cylinder and a beaker in order to compare their precision. • To measure the mass of an item using a triple-beam balance and an analytical (electronic) balance in order to compare their precision; also, to determine the mass of a powder by weighing by difference. • To measure the melting point of an unknown solid and identify it using this measured value. Our knowledge of chemistry and chemical processes largely depends on our ability to obtain correct information about matter. Often this information is quantitative, in the form of measurements. In this lab, students will be introduced to some common measuring instruments so that they can practice making measurements, and to learn about instrument precision. In Part A of this lab, a metric ruler will be used to measure length in centimeters (cm). In Part B, a beaker and a graduated cylinder will be used to measure liquid volume in milliliters (mL). In Part C, an electronic balance and a triple-beam balance will be to measure mass in grams (g). In Part D, a thermometer will be used to measure temperature in degrees Celsius (°C). Since all measuring devices are subject to some error, it is impossible to make exact measurements. Scientists record all the digits of a measurement that are known exactly, plus the...

1 Essential Ideas • Introduction • 1.1 Chemistry in Context • 1.2 Phases and Classification of Matter • 1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties • 1.4 Measurements • 1.5 Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy, and Precision • 1.6 Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results • Key Terms • Key Equations • Summary • Exercises • 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions • Introduction • 2.1 Early Ideas in Atomic Theory • 2.2 Evolution of Atomic Theory • 2.3 Atomic Structure and Symbolism • 2.4 Chemical Formulas • 2.5 The Periodic Table • 2.6 Ionic and Molecular Compounds • 2.7 Chemical Nomenclature • Key Terms • Key Equations • Summary • Exercises • 6 Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements • Introduction • 6.1 Electromagnetic Energy • 6.2 The Bohr Model • 6.3 Development of Quantum Theory • 6.4 Electronic Structure of Atoms (Electron Configurations) • 6.5 Periodic Variations in Element Properties • Key Terms • Key Equations • Summary • Exercises • 7 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry • Introduction • 7.1 Ionic Bonding • 7.2 Covalent Bonding • 7.3 Lewis Symbols and Structures • 7.4 Formal Charges and Resonance • 7.5 Strengths of Ionic and Covalent Bonds • 7.6 Molecular Structure and Polarity • Key Terms • Key Equations • Summary • Exercises • 9 Gases • Introduction • 9.1 Gas Pressure • 9.2 Relating Pressure, Volume, Amount, and Temperature: The Ideal Gas Law • 9.3 Stoichiometry of Gaseous Substances, Mixtures, and Reactions • 9.4 Effusion and Diffusion of Gases • 9.5 The Kine...