Elaborate the french society structure in the 18th century

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The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was an intellectual and cultural movement in the eighteenth century that emphasized reason over superstition and science over blind faith. Using the power of the press, Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke, Isaac Newton, and Voltaire questioned accepted knowledge and spread new ideas about openness, investigation, and religious tolerance throughout Europe and the Americas. Many consider the Enlightenment a major turning point in Western civilization, an age of light replacing an age of darkness. The Freemasons were members of a fraternal society that advocated Enlightenment principles of inquiry and tolerance. Freemasonry originated in London coffeehouses in the early 18th century, and Masonic lodges—local units—soon spread throughout Europe and the British colonies. One prominent Freemason, Benjamin Franklin, stands as the embodiment of the Enlightenment in British America. Born in Boston in 1706 to a large Puritan family, Franklin loved to read, although he found little beyond religious publications in his father’s house. In 1718 he was apprenticed to his brother to work in a print shop, where he learned how to be a good writer by copying the style he found in the Spectator, which his brother printed. At the age of 17, the independent-minded Franklin ran away, eventually ending up in Quaker Philadelphia. There he began publishing the Pennsylvania Gazette in the late 1720s. In 1732 he started his annual publication Poo...

More • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Instructions: This is a question for 3 marks. We have to give at least three points to justify our answer. So our answer will comprise of: • The division of French society into Estates; • The privileges of the First and Second Estates; • The treatment of the Third Estate Solution: The French society in the 18th century was structured as follows: • French society was divided into three classes known as Estates with the First Estate being the clergy, the Second Estate being the nobility and the Third Estate, which included the rest of the society consisting of peasants and the middle class merchants and professionals. • The First and the Se...

The Realist movement in French art flourished from about 1840 until the late nineteenth century, and sought to convey a truthful and objective vision of contemporary life. Realism emerged in the aftermath of the Revolution of 1848 that overturned the monarchy of Louis-Philippe and developed during the period of the Second Empire under Napoleon III. As French society fought for democratic reform, the Realists democratized art by depicting modern subjects drawn from the everyday lives of the working class. Rejecting the concrete art and can only consist in the representation of real and existing things,” Realists recorded in often gritty detail the present-day existence of humble people, paralleling related trends in the naturalist literature of Émile Zola, Honoré de Balzac, and Gustave Flaubert. The elevation of the working class into the realms of high art and literature coincided with Pierre Proudhon’s socialist philosophies and Karl Marx’s Communist Manifesto, published in 1848, which urged a proletarian uprising. Courbet (1819–1877) established himself as the leading proponent of Realism by challenging the primacy of history painting, long favored at the official Salons and the École des Beaux-Arts, the state-sponsored art academy. The groundbreaking works that Courbet exhibited at the A Burial at Ornans (Musée d’Orsay, Paris) and The Stonebreakers (destroyed)—portrayed ordinary people from the artist’s native region on the monumental scale formerly reserved for the ele...

7 The revolutionary bourgeoisie Diversity As might be expected in such a sizeable group, the Third Estate boasted considerable diversity. There were many different classes and levels of wealth; different professions and ideas; rural, provincial and urban residents alike. Members of the Third Estate ranged from lowly beggars and struggling peasants to urban artisans and labourers; from the shopkeepers and commercial middle classes to the nation’s wealthiest merchants and capitalists. Despite the Third Estate’s enormous size and economic importance, it played almost no role in the government or decision-making of the Ancien Regime. The frustrations, grievances and sufferings of the Third Estate became pivotal causes of the French Revolution. The peasantry Peasants inhabited the bottom tier of the Third Estate’s social hierarchy. Comprising between 82 and 88 per cent of the population, peasant-farmers were the nation’s poorest social class. While levels of wealth and income varied, it is reasonable to suggest that most French peasants were poor. A very small percentage of peasants owned land in their own right and were able to live independently as yeoman farmers. The vast majority, however, were either feudal tenants, métayers (tenant sharecroppers who worked someone else’s land) or journaliers (day labourers who sought work where they could find it). Whatever their personal situation, all peasants were heavily taxed by the state. If they were feudal tenants, peasants were a...

• What first sparked the American Revolution? • What was the Third Estate? • What did the American Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man have in common? How did they differ? • How did the French Revolution impact Saint Domingue? What were some other sources of the Haitian revolution? • What classes took power in South America, and how was this different from the class that took power in Saint Domingue? • How did Enlightenment ideas, including ideas about sovereignty, contribute to the Atlantic Revolutions? Do you think it’s fair to say that those ideas caused these revolutions? Use evidence from this article and other material in this lesson to defend your claim. • Make a prediction: How important were the “Atlantic Revolutions” in creating the modern world? Between 1775 and 1825, revolutions across the Americas and Europe changed the maps and governments of the Atlantic world. Within 50 years, the European empires in the Americas would shrink and new nations would spread across the whole of the Americas. Revolutionaries were inspired by the ideals of the Enlightenment including individual freedom. But they also rejected the authority of distant aristocratic rulers. Revolutionary leaders established new countries that only sometimes lived up to promises of democratic rule. The American War of Independence, the French Revolution, the Haitian Revolution, and the many revolutions of Latin America were connected through networks of ideas, ...

The heart of the eighteenth century Enlightenment is the loosely organized activity of prominent French thinkers of the mid-decades of the eighteenth century, the so-called “ philosophes”(e.g., Voltaire, D’Alembert, Diderot, Montesquieu). The philosophes constituted an informal society of men of letters who collaborated on a loosely defined project of Enlightenment exemplified by the project of the Encyclopedia (see below 1.5). However, there are noteworthy centers of Enlightenment outside of France as well. There is a renowned Scottish Enlightenment (key figures are Frances Hutcheson, Adam Smith, David Hume, Thomas Reid), a German Enlightenment ( die Aufklärung, key figures of which include Christian Wolff, Moses Mendelssohn, G.E. Lessing and Immanuel Kant), and there are also other hubs of Enlightenment and Enlightenment thinkers scattered throughout Europe and America in the eighteenth century. What makes for the unity of such tremendously diverse thinkers under the label of “Enlightenment”? For the purposes of this entry, the Enlightenment is conceived broadly. D’Alembert, a leading figure of the French Enlightenment, characterizes his eighteenth century, in the midst of it, as “the century of philosophy par excellence”, because of the tremendous intellectual and scientific progress of the age, but also because of the expectation of the age that philosophy (in the broad sense of the time, which includes the natural and social sciences) would dramatically improve human ...