What is the external structure of society commonly called

• Identify the four levels of socio-cultural integration (band, tribe, chiefdom, and state) and describe their characteristics. • Compare systems of leadership in egalitarian and non-egalitarian societies. • Describe systems used in tribes and chiefdoms to achieve social integration and encourage connections between people. • Assess the benefits and problems associated with state-level political organizations. • Evaluate the extent to which the Islamic State meets the formal criteria for a state-level political organization. All cultures have one element in common: they somehow exercise social control over their own members. Even small foraging societies such as the Ju/’hoansi or !Kung, the Inuit (or “Eskimo”) of the Arctic north, and aboriginal Australians experience disputes that must be contained if inter-personal conflicts are to be reduced or eliminated. As societies become more complex, means of control increase accordingly. The study of these means of control are the subject of political anthropology. BASIC CONCEPTS IN POLITICAL ANTHROPOLOGY Like the “invisible hand” of the market to which Adam Smith refers in analyzing the workings of capitalism, two forces govern the workings of politics: power—the ability to induce behavior of others in specified ways by means of coercion or use or threat of physical force—and authority—the ability to induce behavior of others by persuasion. [1]Extreme examples of the exercise of power are the gulags (prison camps) in Stalinist R...

9 Social Stratification in the United States • Introduction • 9.1 What Is Social Stratification? • 9.2 Social Stratification and Mobility in the United States • 9.3 Global Stratification and Inequality • 9.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification • Key Terms • Section Summary • Section Quiz • Short Answer • Further Research • References • 11 Race and Ethnicity • Introduction • 11.1 Racial, Ethnic, and Minority Groups • 11.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity • 11.3 Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism • 11.4 Intergroup Relationships • 11.5 Race and Ethnicity in the United States • Key Terms • Section Summary • Section Quiz • Short Answer • Further Research • References • 19 Health and Medicine • Introduction • 19.1 The Social Construction of Health • 19.2 Global Health • 19.3 Health in the United States • 19.4 Comparative Health and Medicine • 19.5 Theoretical Perspectives on Health and Medicine • Key Terms • Section Summary • Section Quiz • Short Answer • Further Research • References • Figure 4.5 Warren Buffett’s ideas about taxation and spending habits of the very wealthy are controversial, particularly since they raise questions about America’s embedded system of class structure and social power. The three major sociological paradigms differ in their perspectives on these issues. (Credit: Medill DC/flickr) While many sociologists have contributed to research on society and social interaction, three thinkers form the base of modern-day perspe...

The theory of structuration is a social theory of the creation and reproduction of social systems that is based in the analysis of both social structures and agency, without giving primacy to either. Structuration proposes that structures (i.e., norms, rules, roles) interaction with agency (i.e., free will) to reproduce in groups, teams, and organizations. Duality of structure Structure refers generally to “rules and resources” and more specifically to “the structuring properties allowing the ‘binding’ of time-space in social systems”. These properties make it possible for similar social practices to exist across time and space and that lend them “systemic” form. Agents—groups or individuals—draw upon these structures to perform social actions through embedded memory, called mental models . Mental models are the vehicle through which guide everyday social action. However, structure and agency are mutually influential. Structure is the result of these social practices. Thus, Giddens (1979) conceives of the duality of structure as being: …the essential recursiveness of social life, as constituted in social practices: structure is both medium and outcome of reproduction of practices. Structure enters simultaneously into the constitution of the agent and social practices, and ‘exists’ in the generating moments of this constitution. (p. 5). Giddens uses “the duality of structure” (i.e. material/ideational, micro/macro) to emphasize structure’s nature as both medium and outcome....

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Using terms for different types of racism interchangeably can be confusing when teaching students or professionals about racial equity and inclusion. The key to effective education is not only being accurate, but being human, says “We can be high-brow as much as we want, but in these times, it’s best to be simplistic and also to speak with empathy and from the heart,” Fitzgerald said. He recommends leading with empathy, accountability and openness when educating others about structural, institutional and systemic racism Defining Different Types of Racism People often have difficulty identifying the effects of racism that are not explicitly clear to them or visible in surface-level interactions. Implicit forms of racism can be difficult to identify because popular cultural narratives about racism frequently focus on individual and interpersonal forms of explicit racism. When people see coverage of racist acts in the news, “it’s easy to point to them as individuals and say: ‘These are horrible people. I would never do such a thing,’” Fitzgerald said. But the truth is more complicated. “To actually be a part of it on another level versus what you see on television, that’s hard to fathom for a lot of individuals,” he said, “especially [those who consider themselves] socially just.” Taking a hard look at one’s own cultural environment — at school, at work, in social settings, at community events, in local policies — can lead to a better understanding of implicit racism and illu...